19 The Psychology of Childhood A Teacher s Guide

Psychological Development in Children: Attachment, Self-Concept, Parenting, and Morality

This briefing document synthesizes key theories and findings from Dr. Sudheendra S.G.'s discussion on child development, focusing on attachment, the development of self-concept, parenting styles, and moral reasoning.

1. The Critical Role of Attachment

Attachment, defined by Dr. Sudheendra as the profound bond between a child and their caregiver, is fundamental to psychological development. Early theories viewed attachment primarily as an innate survival instinct, linking it to the provision of basic needs like food. However, groundbreaking research has demonstrated a deeper, more complex reality.

The Harlows' Monkey Experiments: Beyond Basic Needs

The research of American psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow in the 1950s dramatically shifted understanding of attachment. By separating Rhesus macaque monkeys from their mothers at birth and providing "artificial mothers" (one a bare wire cylinder with food, the other a soft cloth cylinder without food), they observed a striking preference:

• Preference for Comfort: Baby monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the "comfy cloth mama," clinging to it for comfort and security, even sometimes feeding from the "Wire Mother" while physically touching the "Cloth Mother." This revealed that "attachment wasn’t just about getting breakfast."
• Importance of Contact and Touch: Dr. Sudheendra emphasizes that the Harlows' work showed "contact and touch are vital to attachment, learning, emotional well-being, and psychological development." Touch conveys security and trust to infants.
• Devastating Consequences of Deprivation: The monkeys deprived of loving touch and social interaction exhibited severe psychological disturbances as adults, including "trouble eating, to rocking back and forth in a trance, to even engaging in self-mutilation." Most never recovered, and those forced into pregnancy "didn't know how to care for their own offspring." This highlights that "Monkeys, like humans, need to be loved."

Familiarity and Critical Periods

Beyond touch, familiarity is also crucial for attachment. A hug from a familiar caregiver provides greater security than one from a stranger, as "The unfamiliar can cause anxiety." While some animals, like ducks and geese, experience a "critical period" for "imprinting" on the first moving object they see as a mother, human babies thankfully do not. However, "Human babies do, however, feel a lot more comfortable around people, things, and settings that they're familiar with."

Ainsworth's Attachment Styles: The "Strange Situation" Experiment

In the 1970s, psychologist Mary Ainsworth developed the "strange situation" experiment to observe different attachment styles in one-year-olds:

• Methodology: A child and their mother were observed in an unfamiliar playroom. A stranger would enter and interact with the child, then the mother would leave. The child's reactions to separation and reunion were key.
• Categories of Behavior: Ainsworth observed and measured "separation anxiety, the child's willingness to explore, stranger anxiety, and reunion behavior."
• Three Main Attachment Styles:Secure Attachment (approx. 70%): Children happily explore when the mother is present, may become distressed when she leaves, but greet her return in a "happy and positive way." These children are typically raised by "sensitive, attentive mothers."
• Insecure Ambivalent Attachment (approx. 15%): Children are fearful of strangers, cry more, explore less, and have a "major freak out when mom left, only to act all salty and mad when she returned." Often linked to "super-anxious mothers who obsessed over every little thing."
• Insecure Avoidant Attachment (approx. 15%): Children are indifferent to strangers, show little distress when the mother leaves, and display "little interest upon her return." Often linked to "less responsive mothers who often ignored their children."
• Long-Term Impact: "Attachment is vital. It builds the foundation for our sense of basic trust and quite possibly for our adult relationships, our motivation to achieve and our willingness to be bold." Disruptions in attachment due to "abuse or extreme neglect" can lead to significant issues, including being "withdrawn and frightened," higher risk for "psychological disorders, health problems, and substance abuse as adults," and perpetuation of abusive cycles. Studies of children in understaffed Romanian orphanages showed lower cognitive scores and higher anxiety.

2. Developing a Sense of Self (Self-Concept)

One of childhood's major achievements is "achieving a positive sense of self," or "an understanding and evaluation of who we are." This self-concept typically solidifies around age 12.

• Self-Recognition: Charles Darwin proposed that self-awareness begins with mirror recognition, which occurs in humans between 15 to 18 months.
• Expanding Self-Concept: By kindergarten, children's self-concept rapidly expands to include age, hair color, family name, skills (e.g., "good at drawing"), and an awareness of similarities and differences with others.
• Benefits of Positive Self-Image: "Kids with positive self-images are more happy, confident, independent, and sociable."

3. Parenting Styles and Their Influence

Parenting significantly influences a child's development, especially their self-concept. Parenting styles are often categorized based on control and warmth:

• Authoritarian Parent: Makes rules with consequences and expects obedience "because 'I said so!'" and tends to be "not very warm to their child."
• Permissive Parent: Often "caves to their child's demands and exerts little control over any of the child's behavior."
• Authoritative Parent: Seeks a balance, being "demanding, but always explain the reasons for their rules, and are loving and responsive."
• Optimal Approach: Research indicates that the "authoritative parent" style, finding a "culturally appropriate sweet-spot between too hard and too soft, is the best way to go."

4. Moral Development

The ability to discern right from wrong and the formation of individual character combine to form morality, a key landmark of childhood and adolescence.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Building on Piaget's work, American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a three-level theory of moral development, emphasizing that moral reasoning develops throughout life. He studied this by posing "moral dilemmas" like the "Heinz Dilemma" and analyzing the reasoning behind choices.

• Preconventional Morality (typically younger than nine): Children are concerned with self-interest and begin to judge based on individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, "Heinz needed the medicine, and stealing it best served his needs."
• Conventional Morality (early adolescence): Moral reasoning shifts to conformity and concern about what others would think. Emphasis is on "what would people think?" and avoiding being seen as a criminal.
• Postconventional Morality (from adolescence on, for some): This is a more complex adult morality where individuals account for differing values and basic rights. "Laws are important, but some situations, like saving your beloved's life, might overrule them." The highest stage involves reasoning based on "universal ethical principles and more abstract reasoning," where "Heinz was right to steal the medicine because people have a right to live."
• Critiques: Critics note Kohlberg's emphasis on "moral thinking rather than moral action," acknowledging a difference between knowing what to do and actually doing it.

Conclusion

The first years of life profoundly shape an individual's psychological landscape. The nature and quality of early attachments, the development of a positive self-concept, the influence of parenting styles, and the evolution of moral reasoning collectively "set the stage of our adolescence and adulthood," underscoring the critical importance of early care and environment.